tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-21098851937456492672024-02-02T09:15:17.378-08:00General BiologyThis is a biology related site which will be helpful for who want to get full concept about biology. Biological science develop what and what biologist concern.Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.comBlogger70125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-19196954341341767642014-01-04T03:23:00.000-08:002014-01-04T03:14:08.315-08:00Lungs and gas exchange<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lungs and gas exchange</span></b></h2>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The primary function of the lungs is to provide
oxygen to the tissues and remove carbon dioxide to outside. Respiration
includes two phases:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(i)
inspiration<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(ii) expiration</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Inspiration</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
means supply of oxygen from the atmosphere to the tissue space through
respiratory tract and blood.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Expiration
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">means
transport of carbon dioxide from the tissue space to atmosphere through
respiratory tract and blood.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The respiratory system is made of <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(i)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lungs: gas exchanging organ<span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(ii)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chest wall & respiratory muscle→
increase & decrease the size of the thoracic cavity </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: -0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(iii)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Areas in the brain → control the muscles </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alveoli AND Respiratory Zone<u> </u></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Polyhedral in shape and clustered
like units of honeycomb</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">~ 300 million air sacs (alveoli).</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimqvjPvwuyN1VgErwd5lKLktiwkfUwoWPb3FnDXwdboxVB4pK8YfBal987ykh2cfADepMRCXn8SKNmGCB1GZd8lvtOrLYVJ3OITTXcscrFeFZUtbKqq2QGS_pzcSCiUUBdoOhPw4z6PvM/s1600/Untitled-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimqvjPvwuyN1VgErwd5lKLktiwkfUwoWPb3FnDXwdboxVB4pK8YfBal987ykh2cfADepMRCXn8SKNmGCB1GZd8lvtOrLYVJ3OITTXcscrFeFZUtbKqq2QGS_pzcSCiUUBdoOhPw4z6PvM/s1600/Untitled-1.jpg" height="320" width="277" /></a></b></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Large surface area (60–80 m<sup>2</sup>).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Each alveolus is 1 cell layer thick.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Total air barrier is 2 cells across (2 mm).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Respiratory Zone:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Region of gas exchange between air<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and
blood.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Includes respiratory bronchioles and
alveolar sacs.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Must contain alveoli.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjP9uGaRJ-aJNHnk6TsUkLf_w0cRohkj8r9zjQw-QHTNJ8YIW-nCsYNSLfgX4dUOVuJH_uh9qHmV1T-x3JLS0jkdGbtsYfDyiRvkkIOE5rCfdlIf57E8e4e3xJd4TmrFXdyzSKP_NKX13Q/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjP9uGaRJ-aJNHnk6TsUkLf_w0cRohkj8r9zjQw-QHTNJ8YIW-nCsYNSLfgX4dUOVuJH_uh9qHmV1T-x3JLS0jkdGbtsYfDyiRvkkIOE5rCfdlIf57E8e4e3xJd4TmrFXdyzSKP_NKX13Q/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" height="285" width="320" /></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></b></span></div>
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Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-87401782939337830022014-01-04T03:10:00.002-08:002014-01-04T03:14:28.072-08:00Gas Exchange in Lungs<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Gas
Exchange in Lungs</span></b>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhi2x4dPXIgyvt7jCzkZ4aoDVm1AgHM7ezl-2wJIK7edsG9sbPk_SirYHhIe4y8scFwzjt0wuow0Nh3JwNW4kQmAiNO-DXbrwXvQ50EPS15TX-jmKPEAsoU2LJExg7Wo8w6eYvcbglV6dA/s1600/Untitled-4.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhi2x4dPXIgyvt7jCzkZ4aoDVm1AgHM7ezl-2wJIK7edsG9sbPk_SirYHhIe4y8scFwzjt0wuow0Nh3JwNW4kQmAiNO-DXbrwXvQ50EPS15TX-jmKPEAsoU2LJExg7Wo8w6eYvcbglV6dA/s1600/Untitled-4.jpg" height="213" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How tissue gets oxygen and release
carbon dioxide</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How Red Cells carry oxygen :</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEju5JT160s1nq4H1cbqtryf-rhpAE0XoYaraxFfykx2Kjz736tNGpHrDiQJ4u6_450QUjEgbOdB29FG3IOwqwf6m26oo8pt2SK1jiETJ_T3u4xsO7NV1-2Gpf_69NUfMQIojBHZTr3s52w/s1600/Untitled-5.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEju5JT160s1nq4H1cbqtryf-rhpAE0XoYaraxFfykx2Kjz736tNGpHrDiQJ4u6_450QUjEgbOdB29FG3IOwqwf6m26oo8pt2SK1jiETJ_T3u4xsO7NV1-2Gpf_69NUfMQIojBHZTr3s52w/s1600/Untitled-5.jpg" height="200" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Partial Pressures of Gases in Blood</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When a liquid or gas (blood and alveolar air) are at
equilibrium, the amount of gas dissolved in fluid reaches a maximum value
(Henry’s Law)</span></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Depends upon:</span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Solubility of gas in
the fluid</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Temperature of the
fluid</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Partial pressure of the
gas</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[Gas] dissolved in a fluid depends directly on its
partial pressure in the gas mixture </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How tissue gets oxygen and release
carbon dioxide</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBGAJlmzLZRuT0CRAdFPYI7FKW_81nmufD6t1jyiRtARO0hTPYGBErduc-5hamFvZSvDVo8uKJ5dM_yEQgG6CZSP2gauXqzlaIpC4NlioTGr_dTKq0RLt1IT1jFTn0SwjydLH00RTKr1w/s1600/Untitled-6.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBGAJlmzLZRuT0CRAdFPYI7FKW_81nmufD6t1jyiRtARO0hTPYGBErduc-5hamFvZSvDVo8uKJ5dM_yEQgG6CZSP2gauXqzlaIpC4NlioTGr_dTKq0RLt1IT1jFTn0SwjydLH00RTKr1w/s1600/Untitled-6.jpg" height="216" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At normal P0<sub>2</sub> arterial blood
is about 100 mm Hg.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">P0<sub>2</sub> level in the systemic
veins is about 40 mm Hg.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PC0<sub>2</sub> is 46 mm Hg in the
systemic veins.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Gas
Exchange in Lungs</span></b></div>
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9ce0RwkvevLLy-3HN5P7GG82QEKntyLKC6OqtCAEvzilzuzl3yj_5_2AAwd5yPRBTx9alEZIopy0o-BMmWEs9-g0UqoxCLwrXvpRp7POmwMOOdelt7zvYSDhW-t8ALtKDOWjID8QkSOw/s1600/Untitled-7.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9ce0RwkvevLLy-3HN5P7GG82QEKntyLKC6OqtCAEvzilzuzl3yj_5_2AAwd5yPRBTx9alEZIopy0o-BMmWEs9-g0UqoxCLwrXvpRp7POmwMOOdelt7zvYSDhW-t8ALtKDOWjID8QkSOw/s1600/Untitled-7.jpg" height="201" width="400" /></a></div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-38163708373129903222014-01-04T03:09:00.002-08:002014-01-04T03:14:42.848-08:00Excretory System and Urinary system includes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-weight: bold;">Excretory System </span></span><b><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></u></b><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></u></b></h2>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD11">Kidneys</span> are the excretory organ of our body. These
are the major component of urinary system </span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4Tk-CL42kJeylt7ZxBMfaVhYAKn_0JpX3rgwj3jLYdme2ZC7O7YlxB2tel1KC_u0iMkTHUaN4X7k3rSZ4ldCprsQZXfOVp9C8zpxYgadd6fzxRssMblsHmdqheW3ygaAbvFDPA7EkV08/s1600/Untitled-8.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4Tk-CL42kJeylt7ZxBMfaVhYAKn_0JpX3rgwj3jLYdme2ZC7O7YlxB2tel1KC_u0iMkTHUaN4X7k3rSZ4ldCprsQZXfOVp9C8zpxYgadd6fzxRssMblsHmdqheW3ygaAbvFDPA7EkV08/s1600/Untitled-8.jpg" height="388" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Urinary system includes</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span></span></h2>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>The paired <b>kidneys </b>lie on either
side of the vertebral column below the diaphragm and live. Each adult kidney
weighs about 160 g and is about 11 cm long and 5 to 7 cm wide</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.
Kidney is formation of urine. <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Ureters
transport of urine from kidneys to urinary bladder<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Urinary
bladder…reservoir of urine<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
</ul>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Urethra...passage
of urine from urinary bladder to outside (</span>In females, the urethra is 4 cm<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> (1.5 in) long In
males, the urethra is about 20 cm (8 in) long</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Each
kidney <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD12">contains</span> about one million <b>Nephrones</b> which are the structural
& functional unit of kidneys.)</span>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-37051747412692794702014-01-04T02:47:00.001-08:002014-01-04T03:15:16.360-08:00How kidneys clean blood<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The primary
function of the kidneys is regulation of the extracellular fluid (plasma and
interstitial fluid) environment in the body</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Accomplished by the formation of Urine.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Kidney
Functions</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">1. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The volume of
blood plasma (and thus contribute</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">significantly to the regulation of blood pressure);</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">2. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
concentration of waste products in the blood;</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">3. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
concentration of electrolytes (Na<sup>+</sup>, K<sup>+</sup>,HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>–</sup>and
other ions) in the plasma; and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">4. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The pH of plasma</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Excretion
of excess unnecessary substances & metabolic waste products Osmoregulation Regulation
of<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(i) water & electrolyte balances</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(ii) acid-base balances</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(iii) blood pressure</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(iv) red cell production</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How kidneys clean blood</span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kidneys clean blood by filtering it. They filter all
our blood 300 times a day. The filtering is done by over a million tubes packed
into each kidney. These tubes are called nephrones. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some people’s kidneys are not very good at
filtering blood. Kidney machines help by filtering blood for them. </span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-33367677606400089182014-01-04T01:43:00.004-08:002014-01-04T01:44:17.326-08:00Digestion and food sources<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></u></b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The process by which food is converted into
substances that can be absorbed and assimilated by the body. Mechanical &
chemical breakdown of food into nutrients are called digestion. </span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Four main macromolecules in food: nucleic acids,
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates are broken down into smaller molecules of
nucleotides, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, and simple sugars. Being
absorbed important minerals, vitamins, and water are also extract from food
during the process of digestion. </span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Food Sources</span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biologists categorize animals into three groups
based on their food source.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Herbivores</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
obtain all food from plants. Examples: cows, horses, and nearly all rodents.</span></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Carnivores</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
obtain all food from meat. Examples: cats, eagles, wolves, and frogs.</span></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Omnivores</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
obtain food from both plants and meat. </span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Examples: humans and bears.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> An animal’s digestive system is specifically suited
to processing food obtained from its food source. For example, herbivores’
digestive systems are equipped to break down plant material, and carnivores’
are not.</span>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-4818812887602346702014-01-04T01:40:00.004-08:002014-01-04T01:41:35.916-08:00What is a digestive system and how does its structure reflect its function?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Digestive systems mechanically and chemically
degrade food into small molecules that can be absorbed, along with water, into
the internal environment. These systems also expel the undigested residues from
the body. Incomplete digestive systems are a saclike cavity with one opening.
Complete digestive systems are a tube with two openings and regional
specializations in between. Structural variations in bills, teeth, and regions
of the gut are adaptations that allow an animal to exploit a particular type or
types of foods.</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Digestive system (Tract)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The digestive tract is the area where digestion
takes place.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The digestive tract varies widely in
complexity from species to species. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The most primitive form found in
nematodes is simply a tubular gut with no specialized features. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The slightly more advanced digestive
tract found in earthworms includes specialized areas for ingestion, storage,
fragmentation, digestion, and absorption. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The most advanced digestive tracts,
found among the vertebrates, exhibit specialization on a much greater scale. </span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-81088522299038147182014-01-04T01:39:00.002-08:002014-01-04T01:45:06.142-08:00What are the components of the human digestive system?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What are the components of the human
digestive system?</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Humans have a complete digestive system. Swallowing
forces food and water from the mouth into the pharynx. Food continues through
an esophagus to the stomach. Food processing starts in the mouth. Most
digestion and absorption occurs in the small intestine. The colon absorbs most
of the remaining water and ions, which causes the wastes to compact. The rectum
briefly stores the wastes before they are expelled through the anus.The liver
and pancreas have an accessory role in digestion. They produce substances that
are secreted into the small intestine.</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Human Digestive system</span></b></h2>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgma-o6fn8KIdizlL5FKu8F0EFQg5BtB4tAY_vjFGGds1AT9cDGeH2En5vRKYaYHuve5_VfpgWy_W2sG7O_ShV1ejUwIHF70IM6lfpGSdx2D4CMxLsoeYzxYqhblMPORxsuOxLvHbk31fk/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgma-o6fn8KIdizlL5FKu8F0EFQg5BtB4tAY_vjFGGds1AT9cDGeH2En5vRKYaYHuve5_VfpgWy_W2sG7O_ShV1ejUwIHF70IM6lfpGSdx2D4CMxLsoeYzxYqhblMPORxsuOxLvHbk31fk/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" height="220" width="400" /></a></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The human alimentary canal:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
The alimentary canal begins at the <b>mouth</b> and the <b>pharynx.</b> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">From here, food travels down a muscular tube called
the <b>esophagus</b> and into the <b>stomach.</b> The stomach connects to the <b>small
intestine,</b> which in turn connects to the <b>large</b> <b>intestine.</b>
Some form of mechanical and chemical digestion breaks down food at every step
along this tube and Nutrients are absorbed across the walls of both intestines.
All products remaining after food travels through the large intestine are
waste, which exit the body through the <b>anus.</b> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Saliva:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Contains water, salt and an enzyme called salivary amylase. Salivary amylase
breaks down starch into smaller sugars. Contains <b>buffers</b>, substances
that neutralize acidic foods. Antibacterial substances that kill bacteria in
the food. Also eases the passage of food through the pharynx and esophagus. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Esophagus</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
The esophagus shuttles food from the pharynx (part of mouth) to the stomach.
The muscles surrounding the esophagus perform peristalsis, the rhythmic and
stepwise contraction of muscle that forces food to move along the esophageal
passage. Sphincter muscles at each end prevent backflow. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Stomach </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
saclike organ. Inner surface is highly convoluted, allowing it to fold up when
empty and expand when full. Digestion occurs in the stomach as gastric juice,
is secreted by gastric glands located in the stomach lining. Gastric juice is
an acidic mixture of enzymes and mucus. Gastric glands are composed of two
types of cells: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Parietal
cells:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chief
cells:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> secrete pepsinogen, the precursor to the enzyme
pepsin. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Protein digestion is initiated by the acidic
environment of the stomach. The HCl, lowers the acidity of the gastric juice to
a pH level of 2. Low pH levels are necessary for pepsinogen to be converted
into the active digestive enzyme pepsin, which further breaks down food
proteins. If chief cells were to secrete pepsin directly into the stomach, the
pepsin would digest the cells themselves. Additionally, mucus lines the stomach
walls and prevents it from being digested. A mixture of gastric acid and
partially digested food called <b>chyme</b> passes out of the stomach.</span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-57197816026771506382014-01-04T01:34:00.001-08:002014-01-04T01:35:37.216-08:00The Upper Digestive Tract<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: left;">
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What happens to food in the mouth?</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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fats.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbHv25pHETP6SMIZJIqVJmq4NS85Jb_OetXlERfgWayOXEAE8wSYX2ClwGCm5-OKfPDet1Nyvx8XAgPGb8t6TdwkVyhVeQ_27idjQ_t59O_4ndqLZnVmx3KcicORiw1HLtudW0kmK7W8s/s1600/Untitled-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbHv25pHETP6SMIZJIqVJmq4NS85Jb_OetXlERfgWayOXEAE8wSYX2ClwGCm5-OKfPDet1Nyvx8XAgPGb8t6TdwkVyhVeQ_27idjQ_t59O_4ndqLZnVmx3KcicORiw1HLtudW0kmK7W8s/s1600/Untitled-1.jpg" height="290" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What are the functions of the stomach?</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h2>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The oral cavity (Digestion in Mouth): </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mouth, the teeth. the tongue, Salivary Glands.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The teeth:</b> break food into smaller
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Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-54006694952271062992014-01-04T01:21:00.002-08:002014-01-04T01:23:02.657-08:00Most Chemical Digestion Occurs in the Small Intestine<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<![endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How does the structure of the small
intestine affect its function?</span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The surface of the
small intestine is highly folded and each fold has many projections (villi).
Brush border cells at the surface of a villus have tiny projections
(microvilli) at their surface. The many folds and projections greatly increase
the surface area for the two functions of the small intestine—digestion and
absorption.</div>
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Dudenum :It’s a tube of about 30 cm long :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Receives bile via bile duct from the liver</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Receives pancreatic juice from the pancreas,
through the pancreatic duct</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Releases digestive juice from its walls. This
intestinal juice contains protease and the enzyme lipase for fat digestion</div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Small Intestine</span></b></h2>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Duodenum: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Controls
the release of food into the small intestine</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Most of the chemical breakdown (Digestion) and
absorption of Food takes place here. Bile salts break down fats in the chyme
while pancreatic fluid, composed of bicarbonate, neutralizes the acid. The
small intestine also contains a host of enzymes that help digest various food
molecules. The enzymes present in the small intestine and their functions are outline
in the table below.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pancreatic amylase, maltase, sucrase,
lactase ------Starch </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Trypsin, chymotrypsin, aminopeptidase,carboxypeptidase
------Protein </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nucleases------ Nucleic acids </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bile salts, lipase ------Fats</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What are the roles of the small
intestine?</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chemical digestion is completed in the small
intestine. Enzymes from the pancreas and enzymes embedded in the membrane of
brush border cells break large molecules into smaller absorbable subunits.
Small subunits (monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, and monoglycerides)
enter the internal environment when they are absorbed into the intersitial
fluid in a villus. Most fluid that enters the gut is also absorbed across the
wall of the small intestine.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpefCUhyphenhyphenPECg3D3hoCeCzOwn9PNFbYJZcGzjTzq2aQzo1Up8rmf6bpIZpIcP3GDSMnUjONvjXyXvuLpIoGQ-DMJQ5J_EHRUpkm3jTPLB-ADFmIcsfU1dV926FV-QFlEg2vZNCKaPfiwCA/s1600/Untitled-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpefCUhyphenhyphenPECg3D3hoCeCzOwn9PNFbYJZcGzjTzq2aQzo1Up8rmf6bpIZpIcP3GDSMnUjONvjXyXvuLpIoGQ-DMJQ5J_EHRUpkm3jTPLB-ADFmIcsfU1dV926FV-QFlEg2vZNCKaPfiwCA/s1600/Untitled-1.jpg" height="263" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Small Intestine</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h4>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The small intestine is split into three sections:
the duodenum (30 Cm), jejunum (2.5m), and the ileum(2-4m). </span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum and
the jejunum. </span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ileum, the final section of the small intestine,
is where most absorption of the nutrients takes place. </span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Small projections called villi cover the ileum
walls. </span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cells lining the villi are covered in folds of
plasma membrane that form even smaller projections called microvilli. </span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Villi and microvilli increase the ileum’s surface
area, providing more surface across which nutrients can be absorbed. </span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nutrients pass through capillaries in the lining of
the villi and into the bloodstream, where they circulate first to the liver,
then throughout the rest of the body. </span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Villi and microvilli projections also contain
digestive enzymes to further digest food. </span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjieDKwGaJ-dn7mfyksFunmQP9fEpZyTsfwBIM4BtvXEw9TpiMTtZXHhHuV_XNLYNalQp43w6-o0gPTGVRvcoPNwuqLbzxmJabgKC4XoY1OiT9R6dFVnhOuQHXlkdPm2CBagPhunPcbMMA/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjieDKwGaJ-dn7mfyksFunmQP9fEpZyTsfwBIM4BtvXEw9TpiMTtZXHhHuV_XNLYNalQp43w6-o0gPTGVRvcoPNwuqLbzxmJabgKC4XoY1OiT9R6dFVnhOuQHXlkdPm2CBagPhunPcbMMA/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-3890872285422484812014-01-04T01:04:00.003-08:002014-01-04T01:21:52.313-08:00Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Figure description</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Enzymes break polysaccharides down to simple sugars,
or monosaccharides. Monosaccharides are actively transported into brush border
cells, then out into interstitial fluid. Proteins are broken into polypeptides,
then amino acids. Amino acids are actively transported into brush border cells,
then out into interstitial fluid.</span></div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
the small intestine, carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides, or
simple sugars . </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
process began in the mouth, where salivary amylase broke polysaccharides into
disaccharides (two-unit sugars). A pancreatic amylase carries out the same
reaction in the small intestine. Disaccharides are substrates for enzymes
embedded in the plasma membrane of the brush border cells. The enzymes split
disaccharides into monosaccharides. For example, sucrase breaks sucrose into
glucose and fructose subunits. Lactase splits lactose into glucose and
galactose. Monosaccharides are actively transported into a brush border cell,
then out into the interstitial fluid inside a villus. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>From here</u> </b>they enter the blood.</span><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-pZzRu2V4txT22fszY4bsQocIMfjjlFpyod5iEOnzpgHhvl4MYQsgSAabbNndFQy8_5sIC8icqBTTz5aV0FaSGmkAcMN2T4QW5kXC2e1-Zb7CvaqCFjoQdm1bIDk7s4LAwt-cDa18t_g/s1600/Untitled-9.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-pZzRu2V4txT22fszY4bsQocIMfjjlFpyod5iEOnzpgHhvl4MYQsgSAabbNndFQy8_5sIC8icqBTTz5aV0FaSGmkAcMN2T4QW5kXC2e1-Zb7CvaqCFjoQdm1bIDk7s4LAwt-cDa18t_g/s1600/Untitled-9.jpg" height="387" width="400" /></a></div>
<h2>
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Protein Digestion and
Absorption</span></u></b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></u></h2>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Protein
digestion began in the stomach, where pepsin broke proteins into polypeptides.
It is completed in the small intestine. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
pancreas secretes proteases such as trypsin and chymotrypsin that break
polypeptides into peptide fragments. Enzymes at the surface of the brush border
cell break these fragments into amino acids. Like monosaccharides, amino acids
are actively transported into brush border cells, then out into the
interstitial fluid. From here they enter the blood.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Movements of the intestinal wall break up fat
globules into small droplets. Bile salts coat the droplets, so that globules
cannot form again.</span><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiUawBrlENiC05ygQmj1hqiY-V8kVCJsJTbdGbcGYEVaM_tDyKZTNqhHLddaV9D_h2bQwCr9u8f4ROTI5JxUcvwBUQK7yM_1eqaq4T_jZbAbdO42lfhWsF4MD-ZL54pXJgC74hvU4s8Hg8/s1600/Untitled-10.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiUawBrlENiC05ygQmj1hqiY-V8kVCJsJTbdGbcGYEVaM_tDyKZTNqhHLddaV9D_h2bQwCr9u8f4ROTI5JxUcvwBUQK7yM_1eqaq4T_jZbAbdO42lfhWsF4MD-ZL54pXJgC74hvU4s8Hg8/s1600/Untitled-10.jpg" height="268" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pancreatic enzymes digest the droplets to
fatty acids and monoglycerides.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Monoglycerides
and fatty acids diffuse across the plasma membrane's lipid bilayer, into brush
border cells.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A
In a brush border cell, the products of fat digestion form triglycerides, which
associate with proteins.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I he resulting
lipoproteins are then expelled by exocytosis into the interstitial fluid inside
the villus.</span>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-77887596946950292462014-01-04T00:52:00.000-08:002014-01-04T00:52:54.599-08:00The Large Intestine<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Food from the small intestine empties into the large
intestine, or colon. No digestion and only a small percentage of absorption
take place in the large intestine. The large intestine primarily functions to
concentrate waste material into a form called feces. Movements of the large
intestine compact feces and move it into the rectum, where it is exited from
the body through either the anus. Feces is expelled from the body through
the voluntary movements of muscles surrounding the rectum.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoSxKrErlS7tCMWAk9hahHNgilNG1ZfOgbHKwLW58Vvds2w_4_C5P5JNCSIiB5T9gEY5jG3hCBQHhg6rDFnebo_yKfcaf-MKoMZwuIC95JIqAYFOWS11TuWy-Hwp8iW_vfk4npLtyGfR0/s1600/Untitled-8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoSxKrErlS7tCMWAk9hahHNgilNG1ZfOgbHKwLW58Vvds2w_4_C5P5JNCSIiB5T9gEY5jG3hCBQHhg6rDFnebo_yKfcaf-MKoMZwuIC95JIqAYFOWS11TuWy-Hwp8iW_vfk4npLtyGfR0/s1600/Untitled-8.jpg" height="230" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rectum:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Muscular storage chamber where the undigested food (feces) is held and molded
before being pushed through anus during expulsion.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anus:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The exit of
alimentary canal, it is closed by a ring of muscle (the anal sphincter). The
ring is relaxed during<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>expulsion
of feces.</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What are the functions of the large
intestine?</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">By absorbing water and mineral ions, the colon
compacts undigested residues and other wastes as feces, which are siored
briefly in the rectum before expulsion.</span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-876387792334219102014-01-04T00:43:00.000-08:002014-01-04T00:43:55.681-08:00Accessory organs<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Produce and store digestive chemicals</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Food does not pass through these</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgpFhjwW9DCIYmmueIb9I45K0VSIY2wfEE1F2GxRS833nGc26HMS7lkpAMmTQ9m8kaBvMom57mR60pSyBGrEs017f8cOr3ZABrX22NjL2GVWcdVNG16o56e9A0I-_bN87hJVeuXFfIzfY/s1600/Untitled-7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgpFhjwW9DCIYmmueIb9I45K0VSIY2wfEE1F2GxRS833nGc26HMS7lkpAMmTQ9m8kaBvMom57mR60pSyBGrEs017f8cOr3ZABrX22NjL2GVWcdVNG16o56e9A0I-_bN87hJVeuXFfIzfY/s1600/Untitled-7.jpg" height="256" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> <b>
</b></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><b>Liver </b>- </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Produces
bile; Stores glucose as glycogen & releases glucose into blood stream</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><b>Gallbladde</b>r - </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Stores
bile, Squirts bile into small intestine when fat arrives</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6PUFhbM1P97fok7b_EVZwtrsxHl4Rev8n8weW6uDNv34Xqo3tuiaPzRcWkp0c8iqPStk_7kEt4LWFOQ3Uhj69nLNBvl4sIUNOSTCS10q_3ccP9bxFD2Z5OVyCMWBthzGAR_Cv34bZv2Q/s1600/Untitled-5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6PUFhbM1P97fok7b_EVZwtrsxHl4Rev8n8weW6uDNv34Xqo3tuiaPzRcWkp0c8iqPStk_7kEt4LWFOQ3Uhj69nLNBvl4sIUNOSTCS10q_3ccP9bxFD2Z5OVyCMWBthzGAR_Cv34bZv2Q/s1600/Untitled-5.jpg" height="400" width="352" /></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> <b>
</b></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><b>Pancreas -</b> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Makes
enzymes. Empties into small intestine</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Pancreatic
juice: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">enzymes,
bicarbonate</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Insulin and
glucagon</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
secreted directly into blood</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Insulin: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Enables
cells to use glucose (glucose enters cells) & promotes formation of
glycogen in liver<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Glucagons: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Signals
to the liver to convert glycogen into glucose & release it into the
bloodstream</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Liver Functions</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></h2>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Forms
bile (assists fat digestion), rids body of excess cholesterol and blood's
respiratory pigments</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Controls
amino acid levels in the blood; converts potentially toxic ammonia to
urea</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Controls
glucose level in blood; major reservoir for glycogen</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Removes
hormones that served their functions from blood</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Removes
ingested toxins, such as alcohol, from blood</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Breaks
down worn-out and dead red blood cells, and stores iron</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Stores
some vitamins<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJtejxjS-CLV4WwJTyH7tm9O0NFQ7AUj4VyRr9mU2W3Hg-A-4HmB1Jw0vwG2v-6tWxoLTh6KDEALTEmgWM5_vMWkKL6TqyzQx1ix_-poUjDsCEuIIlmhPge-HwQW8_ci9FrGVRhxllkx0/s1600/Untitled-6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJtejxjS-CLV4WwJTyH7tm9O0NFQ7AUj4VyRr9mU2W3Hg-A-4HmB1Jw0vwG2v-6tWxoLTh6KDEALTEmgWM5_vMWkKL6TqyzQx1ix_-poUjDsCEuIIlmhPge-HwQW8_ci9FrGVRhxllkx0/s1600/Untitled-6.jpg" height="250" width="400" /></a></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pancreas</span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lies between the stomach and duodenum</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">•<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It secretes pancreatic juice which
passes to the duodenum to help in digestion</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo3; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Amylase – for digesting starch</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo3; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Protease – protein</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo3; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lipase – fat</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0ECJUIhawVuHhOVB6gV2IT-j8XdDU-QrylHCGA-w6V0h9iDLFxFpcwyXthU31wP7sB8yN5o-rxbAABzxT6h0kpf1g_MqPVbeoZDX-DdzXpFj3SM2WME0mtzikEJVQfKgKW8ypWSjUkRY/s1600/Untitled-4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0ECJUIhawVuHhOVB6gV2IT-j8XdDU-QrylHCGA-w6V0h9iDLFxFpcwyXthU31wP7sB8yN5o-rxbAABzxT6h0kpf1g_MqPVbeoZDX-DdzXpFj3SM2WME0mtzikEJVQfKgKW8ypWSjUkRY/s1600/Untitled-4.jpg" height="169" width="320" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-25815645606231790622014-01-04T00:05:00.000-08:002014-01-04T00:05:52.761-08:00Stomach Disorders<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Stomach
Disorders</span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Gastroesophageal Refiux </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
some people, the gastroesophageal sphincter at the entrance to the stomach does
not close properly or opens when it should not. The result is gastroesophageal
reflux. Acidic chyme splashes back into the esophagus, causing a burning pain
commonly called heartburn or acid indigestion. Occasional acid reflux can be
treated with over-the-counter antacids, but a chronic problem should be
discussed with a doctor. Repeated exposure to acid can damage the tissue of the
esophagus and raise the risk of esophageal cancer.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Stomach Ulcers </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When
something disrupts the stomach's protective mucus layer, gastric fluid and
enzymes can erode the stomach lining, causing an ulcer. Most ulcers occur after
an acid-loving species of bacteria (Helicobacter pylori) makes its way through
gastric mucus and infects cells of the stomach lining. H. pylori releases
chemicals that increase gastrin secretion, thus making the stomach more acid.
The extra acidity stresses cells of the stomach lining so the infection spreads
more easily. Antibiotics halt the infection and allow healing to occur.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Continual use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs such as ibuprofen or aspirin can also cause a stomach ulcer. These drugs
interfere with chemical signals that maintain the health of the stomach lining.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghJ1KCRd37UR8Y0y6utfWnAuDVNTlOs90LF9_nNkyPzdtEy4QqSmzWyxane2yS9AiWnnXfC6lehEFG1cJGq7t6frjC_GmRLODuibK7r5p3VP56OnUc0tgMzl04uQAXyFfFTR56tNuYyog/s1600/Untitled-3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghJ1KCRd37UR8Y0y6utfWnAuDVNTlOs90LF9_nNkyPzdtEy4QqSmzWyxane2yS9AiWnnXfC6lehEFG1cJGq7t6frjC_GmRLODuibK7r5p3VP56OnUc0tgMzl04uQAXyFfFTR56tNuYyog/s1600/Untitled-3.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disorders That Affect Digestion in the
Small Intestine</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Lactose Intolerance </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To
be able to digest lactose, a person must have functional lactase at the surface
of their brush border cells. In many people, including most Asians and African
Americans, expression of the gene for lactase declines in adulthood. As a
result, lactose is not broken down in the small intestine. When lactose enters
the large intestine, resident bacteria break it down in reactions that produce
hydrogen gas as a by-product. The result is flatulence, a feeling of bloating,
and cramps.</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disorders That Affect Digestion in the
Large Intestine</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Appendicitis—an inflammation of the appendix—
requires prompt treatment. It often occurs after a bit of feces lodges in the
appendix and infection sets in. Removing an inflamed appendix prevents it from
bursting and releasing bacteria into the abdominal cavity. Such a rupture could
cause a lifc-threatcninc infection.</span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-32748479982583924312014-01-03T23:30:00.000-08:002014-01-03T23:31:34.100-08:00Human Nutritional Requirements<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Energy-Rich Carbohydrates</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fresh fruits, whole grains, and
vegetables—especially legumes such as peas and beans—provide abundant complex
carbohydrates . The body breaks the starch in these foods into glucose, your
primary source of energy. These foods also provide essential vitamins and
fiber. Eating foods high in soluble fiber helps lower one's cholesterol level
and may reduce the risk of heart disease. A diet high in insoluble fiber helps
prevent constipation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Foods rich in processed carbohydrates such as white
flour, refined sugar, and corn syrup are sometimes said to be lull of
"empty calories/' This is a way of saying that these foods provide little
in the way of vitamins or fiber.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">You may have noticed breads and other grain-based
foods labeled as "gluten-free." Gluten is a protein found in<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>wheat and many other grains. An estimated 1
percent of the population has a genetic disorder called celiac disease, in
which gluten causes an autoimmune reaction that harms the small intestine's
villi. Celiac disease is treated by eliminating gluten from the diet.</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Good Fat, Bad Fat</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Your body uses lipids to build cell membranes, as
energy stores, and as a reservoir for fat-soluble vitamins.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid arc essential
fatty acids, meaning the human body needs them but cannot make them, so they
are required in the diet. Both are polyunsaturated fats; their long carbon
tails include two or more double bonds. Unsaturated fats are liquid at room
temperature.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We divide the polyunsaturated fatty acids into two
categories: omega-3 fatly acids and omega-6 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids,
the main fat in oily fish such as sar dines, seem to have special health
benefits. Studies suggest that a diet high in omega-3 fatty acids can reduce
the risk of cardiovascular disease, lessen the inflammation associated with
rheumatoid arthritis, and help diabetics control their blood glucose. Oleic
acid, the main fat in olive oil. may also have health benefits. It is
monounsaturated, which means its carbon tails have only one double bond. A diet
in which olive oil is substituted for saturated fats helps prevent heart
disease.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dairy products and meats are rich in saturated fats
and cholesterol. Overindulging in these foods increases one's risk for heart
disease, stroke, and some cancers.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Trans fatty acids, or trans fats, are manufactured
from vegetable oils. However, they have a molecular structure that makes them
even worse for the heart than saturated fats. All food labels are now required
to show the amounts of trans fats, saturated fats, and cholesterol per serving.</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Body-Building Proteins</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2WdwfsNpAURo17CIXOwinbYRCSG0_slTGiEKRYJRSkam5WJcPkRCRrTaRwQMpjb4ufil0R6XcN54PKryEYGZk1jyc7lETWYMdIeciOLWsfaulRyg-UsrUuPqtUyS6dJ-cZGmvZOpz-FE/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2WdwfsNpAURo17CIXOwinbYRCSG0_slTGiEKRYJRSkam5WJcPkRCRrTaRwQMpjb4ufil0R6XcN54PKryEYGZk1jyc7lETWYMdIeciOLWsfaulRyg-UsrUuPqtUyS6dJ-cZGmvZOpz-FE/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" height="400" width="241" /></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Amino acids are building blocks of proteins. Your
cells can make some amino acids but you must get eight essential amino acids
from food.Most proteins in meat are "complete," meaning their amino
acid ratios match a human's nutritional needs. By contrast, most plant proteins
are "incomplete," meaning they lack one or more amino acids essential
for the human diet. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The American Dietetic Association states that, with
careful planning, a vegetarian diet can provide all essential nutrients for
people in any stage of life. To obtain all the required amino acids from plant
sources alone, one must combine foods so that the amino acids missing from one
component are present in some oth ers. As an example, rice and beans together
provide all necessary amino acids, but rice alone or beans alone do not. You do
not have to eat the two complementary foods at the same meal, but both should
be consumed within a 24-hour period.</span></div>
<br />
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vitamins and Minerals</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vitamins are organic substances that are essential
in very small amounts; no other substance can carry out their metabolic
functions. At a minimum, human cells require the thirteen vitamins. Minerals
are inorganic substances that are essential for growth and survival because no
other substance can serve their metabolic functions. Red blood cells require
iron to make oxygen-transporting hemoglobin. Iodine is essential for
development of a healthy nervous system and to make thyroid hormone.</span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-825664818854725182014-01-03T23:10:00.003-08:002014-01-03T23:21:05.963-08:00What is a Healthy Weight?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> How reliable is BMI as an indicator of body fatness?</span></h2>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The correlation between the BMI number and body
fatness is fairly strong, however the correlation varies by sex, race, and age</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At the same BMI, women tend to have more
body fat than men.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At the same BMI, older people, on
average, tend to have more body fat than younger adults.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Highly trained athletes may have a high
BMI because of increased muscularity rather than increased body fatness.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">BMI is only one factor related to risk for disease,
For assessing someone's likelihood of developing overweight- or obesity-related
diseases. The individual's waist circumference (because abdominal fat is a
predictor of risk for obesity-related diseases). Other risk factors the
individual has for diseases and conditions associated with obesity (for
example, high blood pressure or physical inactivity).</span><br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">How to
calculate how many kilocalories you need</span></span> </span></h2>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Multiply
the weight (in pounds) , </span><br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">by
10 if you are not active physically, </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">by
15 if you are moderately active, and </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">by
20 if you are highly active</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Subtract
one of the following amounts from the multiplication result</span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIhLIDhImsXN3paGf2CuNMhZUP-EDLIDiqTDSNHJ61NFYScnjx41e-WwbzKunLZ7_YLKoJfwKHRjdKcrC4a9UA6VhbOkOX5Z7OHqycGSOsLTgbfLAblSehrJxLjW8pY9Tin7wqwhMVXKw/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIhLIDhImsXN3paGf2CuNMhZUP-EDLIDiqTDSNHJ61NFYScnjx41e-WwbzKunLZ7_YLKoJfwKHRjdKcrC4a9UA6VhbOkOX5Z7OHqycGSOsLTgbfLAblSehrJxLjW8pY9Tin7wqwhMVXKw/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" height="185" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For example, if you are 25 years old, are highly
active, and weigh 120 pounds, you will require 120 X 20 = 2,400 kilocalories
daily to maintain weight. If you want to gain weight you will require more; to
lose, you will require less. The amount is only a rough estimate. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Other factors, such as height, must be considered. A
person 5 feet, 2 inches tall and active does not require as much energy as an
active 6-footer whose body weight is the same.</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqkU-V9LkFkZvfL3Hz9a6n3n1G2Rv0Ca6-orBA1tMwA63QnpVqkPACrlSS4r3cYuDf8iPaYC8w81MfVlcBceyqoVD3TgskyyDrnM5M6sV6DY6V1Xb-50-_IHm7ZcbUrjhM_evFTbsiFRg/s1600/Untitled-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqkU-V9LkFkZvfL3Hz9a6n3n1G2Rv0Ca6-orBA1tMwA63QnpVqkPACrlSS4r3cYuDf8iPaYC8w81MfVlcBceyqoVD3TgskyyDrnM5M6sV6DY6V1Xb-50-_IHm7ZcbUrjhM_evFTbsiFRg/s1600/Untitled-1.jpg" height="228" width="400" /></a></div>
</div>
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Calorie value of food : </span></b></h2>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">a) Carbohydrate<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>-<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4.4
k.cal/g.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">b) Fat<span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>-<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>9.3 k.cal/g.<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">c) Protein <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>-<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4.0 k.cal/g. </span></div>
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Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-3109607404198025882014-01-03T08:25:00.004-08:002014-01-03T08:31:30.385-08:00The nervous system is an electrochemical communication<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">1. It receives
sensory messages from the external environment.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">2. It organizes
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Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-4422658944399414472014-01-03T08:24:00.001-08:002014-01-03T08:31:54.979-08:00Neurons information<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Neurons information </b></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5rM-y1K_XPXAGGJbL4ypsPZKeC0e3QkYnV7KkwhXV0gAPavuWLJ6M0_vVd9z4A_mQdr85vLdRlPuYg4tFHEHc45-VyWo8LURdn6nx0B69zHtXAqHRinbiAV46Ze83PO6FZreJ3p9BcxQ/s1600/Untitled-5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5rM-y1K_XPXAGGJbL4ypsPZKeC0e3QkYnV7KkwhXV0gAPavuWLJ6M0_vVd9z4A_mQdr85vLdRlPuYg4tFHEHc45-VyWo8LURdn6nx0B69zHtXAqHRinbiAV46Ze83PO6FZreJ3p9BcxQ/s1600/Untitled-5.jpg" height="400" width="261" /></a></b></div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Brain is a single organ</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">internal structure and organization are
quite complex. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Contains about 10<sup>11</sup> neurons, </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mature neurons do not have the ability to go under
Mitosis</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The "normal" loss of neurons has been
estimated to be about 10<sup>3</sup> per hour,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>in 75 years (660,000 hours), a loss of only 0.66 percent of the total
number of neurons present at birth. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">People of advanced age </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">less brain substance than their younger
counterparts. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">brain shrinkage with age</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Environmental factors: accidents, drug use, can
increase the rate of either cell shrinkage or cell loss.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Basic structural and functional units of the nervous
system. They cannot divide by mitosis. The fully differentiated, post-mitotic
cells cannot be replaced during the lifetime of the organism. As neurons die in
the course of normal aging, they cannot be replaced. Therefore, the maximum
number of neurons exists near the time of birth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Neurons respond to physical and chemical
stimuli.These cells are able to produce and conduct electrochemical impulses.
Electrical impulse move from one cell to another cell by the release chemical
regulators.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cell body (perikaryon):</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">“Nutrition center.”</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cell bodies within CNS clustered into
nuclei, <br />
and in PNS in<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ganglia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> <b>
</b></span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dendrites:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Provide receptive area.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Transmit electrical impulses to cell
body.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> <b>
</b></span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Axon:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conducts impulses away from cell body.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Each neuron usually contains an axon </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Synapses</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">cell body of another neuron (axo-somatic
synapses), </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">contact dendrites (axo-dendritic
synapses).</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">one cell's axon and another cell's axon
(axo-axonic, or presynaptic, synapses). </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjU2tSY8-GPe_7ipGNAZ3231QkZyCYpuguMOg1bnM_0q6U-HMJs_v2PZPSbd5q2kfFTcIOYWP6hMjKQARcsTIpsSbql-Y6SOvKiip1whkV8Mnw3n0JsjaqkgxTcuATKmcfxSwjCK4A-myw/s1600/Untitled-6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjU2tSY8-GPe_7ipGNAZ3231QkZyCYpuguMOg1bnM_0q6U-HMJs_v2PZPSbd5q2kfFTcIOYWP6hMjKQARcsTIpsSbql-Y6SOvKiip1whkV8Mnw3n0JsjaqkgxTcuATKmcfxSwjCK4A-myw/s1600/Untitled-6.jpg" height="191" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Neurons are Excitable cells. They vary considerably
in size and shape, Important biochemical and physiological properties are
common.The dendrites are the short processes of the cell body. They conduct the
nerve impulse toward the cell body.Axon is the largest process of the cell
body. An axon conducts impulses away from the cell body. The majority of axons
within the CNS, are only a centimeter or two in length. The dendrites and axons
are often referred to as nerve fibers. Within the CNS, most axons make
functional connections with other neurons at junctions called synapses. </span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-9032569462588496862014-01-03T08:13:00.002-08:002014-01-03T08:32:08.913-08:00Functional Classification of Neurons<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Based upon direction impulses conducted.</span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sensory or afferent:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conduct impulses from sensory receptors
into CNS.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Motor or efferent:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conduct impulses out of CNS to effector
organs.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Association or interneurons:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Located entirely within the CNS.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Serve an integrative function.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOE0nwTzVetzyvt6fshV3iSvspE8g2R0EgOZEi4WWVPgfOcoaWQjJolwOuuG6StOMcW-Bwiwsyocv6gqj_0F9O4A7HSQ1Di6bSuq4q-0y-HMlVTuYFPCg9YgD7ezx9BQeOYrmryP3aD74/s1600/Untitled-4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOE0nwTzVetzyvt6fshV3iSvspE8g2R0EgOZEi4WWVPgfOcoaWQjJolwOuuG6StOMcW-Bwiwsyocv6gqj_0F9O4A7HSQ1Di6bSuq4q-0y-HMlVTuYFPCg9YgD7ezx9BQeOYrmryP3aD74/s1600/Untitled-4.jpg" height="350" width="400" /></a></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Functional
Classes of Neurons</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB">Neurons are classified in
three ways:</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">a. Afferent
neurons transmit information into the CNS from receptors at their peripheral
endings.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">b. Efferent
neurons transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">c. Interneurons
lie entirely within the CNS and form circuits with other interneurons or
connect afferent and efferent neurons.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-47389348210599786102014-01-03T08:10:00.003-08:002014-01-03T08:32:28.977-08:00Glia or Glial Cells<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Other cells in CNS, "glia/ glial cells"
comes from "glue,”</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One-tenth the size of neurons. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Number of glial cells is ten times greater than
neurons in the brain (approximately 10<sup>11</sup> neurons and 10<sup>12</sup>
glial cells),</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Constitute approximately half of the overall mass of
the brain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">White matter consist predominantly of glial cells
and a small volume of axons.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There are three types of glia: They arise from two
different embryological lines. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">astrocytes, </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">microglia</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii4-w9ClguA6QFh3EzR0cQNSlqwCqGuCwvf0Nh5PWZuibUOtE4HrCp5hY7AJCywBrqE_mU01PrpXd7hOu9u6LvJCSecCiM_DqBrYAiS91E55O0SyCP7KxTNomJtOstkFlRoea05AM_IlU/s1600/Untitled-3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii4-w9ClguA6QFh3EzR0cQNSlqwCqGuCwvf0Nh5PWZuibUOtE4HrCp5hY7AJCywBrqE_mU01PrpXd7hOu9u6LvJCSecCiM_DqBrYAiS91E55O0SyCP7KxTNomJtOstkFlRoea05AM_IlU/s1600/Untitled-3.jpg" height="207" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-21099735984137964102014-01-03T08:08:00.001-08:002014-01-03T08:32:58.193-08:00Myelin Sheath and Blood-Brain Barrier<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Myelin Sheath </span></u></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Myelin is a substance that forms the myelin sheath
associated with nerve cells. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This sheath is a layer of phospholipids that
increases the conductivity of the electrical messages that are sent through the
cell. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Diseases such as multiple sclerosis are a result in
a lack of this myelin sheath, with the resultant effect being that the
conductivity of signals is much slower severely decreasing the effectiveness of
the nervous system in sufferers.</span></div>
<h3 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Myelinated nerve fibers</span></u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
</span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A Myelinated nerve fiber is one that is surrounded
by a myelin sheath. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The myelin sheath is not part of the neuron but is
formed by a supporting cell.</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blood-Brain Barrier</span></b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Capillaries in brain do not have pores between
adjacent endothelial cells.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Joined by tight junctions.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Molecules within brain capillaries moved selectively
through endothelial cells by:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Diffusion.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Active transport.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Endocytosis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Exocytosis.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD0jJEdZ7HRaiybflUUFEWflbDGiZlgZfFuZ_Tz8f7DuQbV06SccjP2nW5mxLeeDvzuO4pjy0E-syBsB3t8_Rj1lkPikFUxzAhyphenhyphenUVTLoNJx_IiUrU0Prq_S_l8nWFxV889UBDlALHakkk/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD0jJEdZ7HRaiybflUUFEWflbDGiZlgZfFuZ_Tz8f7DuQbV06SccjP2nW5mxLeeDvzuO4pjy0E-syBsB3t8_Rj1lkPikFUxzAhyphenhyphenUVTLoNJx_IiUrU0Prq_S_l8nWFxV889UBDlALHakkk/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" height="298" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The nervous system consists of a large number of
neurons that are linked together to form functional conducting pathways. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When two neurons come into close proximity and
functional interneuronal communication occurs, the site of such communication
is referred to as a synapse.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The space between two cells is known as the synaptic
cleft. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidP6w8aMRrMwDUBGy8mTRFfiGOuRJtv9y2ZcxMpHDt7t9RbpZwplma7nxEDq_AtcfWVWUj7Tmi1vUnpoPHw2UtqHSwS6OV78lmLmoTX0vfze9a9tG3pvn-qTn-6RTuX7qOBLqcPTHlALg/s1600/Untitled-3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidP6w8aMRrMwDUBGy8mTRFfiGOuRJtv9y2ZcxMpHDt7t9RbpZwplma7nxEDq_AtcfWVWUj7Tmi1vUnpoPHw2UtqHSwS6OV78lmLmoTX0vfze9a9tG3pvn-qTn-6RTuX7qOBLqcPTHlALg/s1600/Untitled-3.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-44677893619064101182014-01-03T08:03:00.001-08:002014-01-03T08:33:22.859-08:00Reflex and Reflex arc<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Reflex is a
rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A reflex arc is
the pathway travelled by the nerve impulses during a reflex..<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRjtOxhoJE1R5sHwGEICn4PGTLP6zuJ6jfUXzatt-TtTgCli10lsCCeP60ZmdXQLCQHpsh0iIYn8pcz20KrV-pi8tdql2C3bgCRVIPkGKbOZB58_IRf4DHrn8Ey2aBhkiiyMeOLtOuNcM/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRjtOxhoJE1R5sHwGEICn4PGTLP6zuJ6jfUXzatt-TtTgCli10lsCCeP60ZmdXQLCQHpsh0iIYn8pcz20KrV-pi8tdql2C3bgCRVIPkGKbOZB58_IRf4DHrn8Ey2aBhkiiyMeOLtOuNcM/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" height="208" width="400" /></a></div>
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Most reflexes
are spinal reflexes with pathways that traverse only the spinal cord. During a
spinal reflex, information may be transmitted to the brain, but it is the
spinal cord, and not the brain, that is responsible for the integration of
sensory information and a response transmitted to motor neurons. Some reflexes
are cranial reflexes with pathways through cranial nerves and the brain stem.</span></div>
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A reflex arc
involves the following components</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></h2>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The <b>receptor </b>is the part of the neuron
(usually a dendrite) that detects a stimulus.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The sensory neuron transmits the impulse to the
spinal cord.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The integration center involves one synapse
(monosynaptic reflex arc) or two or more synapses (polysynaptic reflex
arc) in the gray matter of the spinal cord. In polysynaptic reflex arcs,
one or more interneurons in the gray matter constitute the integration
center.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A motor neuron transmits a nerve impulse from the
spinal cord to a peripheral region.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">An <b>effector </b>is a muscle or gland that
receives the impulse form the motor neuron. In somatic reflexes, the
effector is skeletal muscle. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">In autonomic (visceral) reflexes, the effector is
smooth or cardiac muscle, or a gland.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-77538282366439721772014-01-03T07:59:00.002-08:002014-01-03T08:33:37.918-08:00The brain can be damaged in a variety of ways, and depending on the areas damaged and the severity of the damage<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Genetics </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A dysfunctional hereditary gene could have been passed on to the offspring
which prevented the full development of a healthy brain </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Blow </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A sufficient
blow to the head can supercede the skulls defences (particularly at the temple)
and can therefore allow structural damage to occur.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lack of Blood </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lack of blood to the brain can cause severe problems for the cells associated
with the brain. A human can survive for four minutes without oxygen before the
brain damage becomes so severe there is no realistic chance of survival. A
stroke is an event where there is a blood shortage to the brain, which is
caused by a blood clot. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Tumours</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cancer has been a major non-infectious disease more recognised over the last
decade, and more cases of brain tumours are detected nowadays due to more
sophisticated techniques. The continued growth of these cancerous cells puts
pressure on the brain, which can cause a blood clot or directly cause brain
damage due to the pressure of the tumour pressing against it. </span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-4203238889887630862014-01-03T07:56:00.004-08:002014-01-03T08:33:53.110-08:00Types of Brain Damage<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aphasia -</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
A type of brain damage affecting communication capabilities in the organism.
This can range from the inability to construct a sentence either in voice or on
paper, to the inability to recognise speech itself. This sort of damage focuses
on the frontal lobe area of the brain.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE0gTwvjzcZv6YyyM8eIcYz-AuIv6hWCE89y9C8woUBQTFUoDTBctzQm3oet33EewNGu6MtApcTZ-WBwY95e3bo_OZXXruDr3HSZ6ES_B5hvV-KSNwrITDfhiewSV9wVa-TdeNYaJE6jI/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE0gTwvjzcZv6YyyM8eIcYz-AuIv6hWCE89y9C8woUBQTFUoDTBctzQm3oet33EewNGu6MtApcTZ-WBwY95e3bo_OZXXruDr3HSZ6ES_B5hvV-KSNwrITDfhiewSV9wVa-TdeNYaJE6jI/s1600/Untitled-2.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Visual Neglect -</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
This is where the information collated on one half of the brain is rejected and
therefore the sufferer can only operate with one eye, because the part of the
brain receiving visual information from the other eye is not functioning
properly. In some cases, sufferers may only be able to paint half a painting or
eat one half of a plate of food as they are unaware of the information about
the other half of the environment. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBoJRRx3U3JHSlkZfdo5Kj9JH6OebYwUXZQmIkNNMRIKt84Uv4i_hYxRbii8Kw0v7C9vNmn17Sgr0jXmJrwxymG2CfOGJSR2wupFKUHosGK2I9rcqfTAI9OjS27cpqv9xKxxqa37YMnVU/s1600/Untitled-3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBoJRRx3U3JHSlkZfdo5Kj9JH6OebYwUXZQmIkNNMRIKt84Uv4i_hYxRbii8Kw0v7C9vNmn17Sgr0jXmJrwxymG2CfOGJSR2wupFKUHosGK2I9rcqfTAI9OjS27cpqv9xKxxqa37YMnVU/s1600/Untitled-3.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Amnesia -</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
Or retrograde amnesia, this sort of damage affects the memory, caused by
degeneration / damage in the frontal lobe. Sufferers have memory blanks when relating
to past experiences in their life </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Agnosia -</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
This unusual sort of brain damage is where sufferers still have the complete
ability to see around them (unlike visual neglect), though cannot relate their
surroundings in a quantifiable way, i.e. they fail to recognize a familiar
surrounding, person or object, due to a malfunction in recalling past events
involving the surrounding, person or object.</span></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-24575639042555039382013-12-07T08:11:00.003-08:002014-01-01T05:58:57.459-08:00Cells,Discovery of cells & Cell theory<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Much of the diversity of forms and functions in living organisms results
from small atoms being combinedin different ways to form a number of
molecules and molecules form macromolecules. Eventually,
thesemacromolecules build cells, tissues, organs and finally, an entire
organism.<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlQA9382RceTXnVUj7vEC8cUztqmIq3LluQGY8MmNtg_k_uwmqG8AoStYLU5boFSrFc4qMQcGNtJfldEZlahIbsiWwAyx1wWLDn1qXdZbryro2JilNVLRiqipJGdWGRd-zdYc73x2VLOQ/s1600/cell.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlQA9382RceTXnVUj7vEC8cUztqmIq3LluQGY8MmNtg_k_uwmqG8AoStYLU5boFSrFc4qMQcGNtJfldEZlahIbsiWwAyx1wWLDn1qXdZbryro2JilNVLRiqipJGdWGRd-zdYc73x2VLOQ/s400/cell.jpg" width="267" /></a><br />
<b>Cells</b><br />
A cell is the smallest unit of life that can survive and reproduce on its own, given<br />
information in DNA, energy, and raw materials. Some cells live and reproduce<br />
independently. Others do so as part of a multicelled organism.<br />
<br />
<b>Discovery of cells</b><br />
In the middle of the 17th century, one of the pioneers of microscopy, Robert<br />
Hooke (1635–1703), decided to examine a piece of cork tissue with his home-built<br />
microscope. He saw numerous box shaped structures that he thought resembled<br />
row of empty boxes or rooms, so he called them ‘cells’.<br />
<br />
<b>Cell theory</b><br />
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, hypothesized that a plant cell is an independent living unit even<br />
when it is part of a plant and both concluded that the tissues of animals as well as plants are composed of<br />
cells and their products. Together, the two scientists recognized that cells have a life of their own even<br />
when they are part of a multicelled body.<br />
Later, physiologist Rudolf Virchow realized that all cells he studied descended from another living cell.<br />
These and many other observations yielded three generalizations that today constitute the cell theory:<br />
1) Every organism is composed of one or more cells<br />
2) Cell is smallest unit having properties of life<br />
3) Continuity of life arises from growth and division of single cells<br />
Thus, Cell theory is that all organisms consist of one or more cells, which are the basic unit of life.<br />
<br />
<b>Cell</b><br />
A cell is the smallest unit that shows the properties of life.<br />
These properties include -<br />
• Can survive on its own or has potential to do so<br />
• Is highly organized for metabolism<br />
• Senses and responds to environment<br />
• Has potential to reproduce</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2109885193745649267.post-24423814461978832882013-12-07T07:53:00.001-08:002014-01-01T05:58:09.599-08:00Structure of Cells<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Despite their differences, however, all cells share certain
organizational and functional features. Every cellhas a plasma membrane.
A plasma membrane is selectively permeable, allows only certain
materials tocross. All cell membranes, including the plasma membrane,
consist mainly of lipids. The plasmamembrane encloses a fluid or
jellylike mixture of water, sugars, ions, and proteins called cytoplasm.
Some or all of a cell’s metabolism occurs in the cytoplasm, and the
cell’s internal components are suspended in it. All cells start out life
with DNA, although a few types of cells lose it as they mature.<br />
<br />
<b>Cell type</b><br />
Biologists have categorized cells into two general types: eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.<br />
The cells of plants, animals, fungi, protozoa, and algae are eukaryotic,
and are placed in a category called Eucarya . All eukaryotic cells have
their genetic material surrounded by a nuclear membrane forming the
cellular nucleus. They also have a large number and variety of complex
organelles, each specialized in the metabolic function it performs. In
general, they are large in comparison to Prokaryotic cells. These cell
types do not have a nuclear membrane; therefore they lack a cellular
nucleus. In addition, they display unique chemical and metabolic
characteristics but do not have the variety and number of organelles
seen in eukaryotes.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Lipid Bilayer</b><br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqOVu-72Hpyr6ByBQx6IwXuTWkcN8ZqBUzasSpALpTIlfC6FqUceZ1dy3jf68XJpg4gje9K4BJHOKAEfQg7E2gjVYfAYE9_J7jjV-XnPqsyr1qaxLJPaYTekqaFC0RGM7LAQWpL25RVaY/s1600/oip.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="286" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqOVu-72Hpyr6ByBQx6IwXuTWkcN8ZqBUzasSpALpTIlfC6FqUceZ1dy3jf68XJpg4gje9K4BJHOKAEfQg7E2gjVYfAYE9_J7jjV-XnPqsyr1qaxLJPaYTekqaFC0RGM7LAQWpL25RVaY/s320/oip.jpg" width="320" /></a>Lipids—mainly
phospholipids—make up the bulk of a cell membrane. A phospholipid
consists of a phosphate containing head and two fatty acid tails. The
polar head is hydrophilic, which means that it interacts with water
molecules. The nonpolar tails are hydrophobic, so they do not interact
with water molecules, but they do interact with the tails of other
phospholipids. Lipid bilayers are the basic structural and functional
framework of all cell membranes, gives membrane it's fluidity.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Fluid mosaic</b><br />
<br />
Other molecules, including steroids and proteins, are embedded in or associated with the lipid<br />
bilayer of every cell membrane. Most of these molecules move around the
membrane more or less freely. A cell membrane behaves like a two
dimensional liquid of mixed composition, so we<br />
describe it as a fluid mosaic. The “mosaic” part of the name comes from a
cell membrane’s mixed composition of lipids and proteins. The fluidity
occurs because the phospholipids in a cell membrane are not bonded to
one another. They stay organized as a bilayer as a result of collective
hydrophobic and hydrophilic attractions.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0Nvx5EYgGFjof_R-eCpz3nCjqobsZc0nOOLON0LZB2YMpk2w_u9cWFgpGrGANGTp7ZjbUu6kenMxbB5RGCrGl_1cmt_rX5DJ8JfrM1IKulxejaNOO4XWSPakk8gAPZQpCqQQIXtMBFa8/s1600/tonh.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="197" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0Nvx5EYgGFjof_R-eCpz3nCjqobsZc0nOOLON0LZB2YMpk2w_u9cWFgpGrGANGTp7ZjbUu6kenMxbB5RGCrGl_1cmt_rX5DJ8JfrM1IKulxejaNOO4XWSPakk8gAPZQpCqQQIXtMBFa8/s400/tonh.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
</div>
Md. Noor Alamhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06269342536301036456noreply@blogger.com0